De-escalation Articles
NDTC LIBRARY
Cost of Police Misconduct
Spending billions on policing, then millions on police misconduct (2019)
https://theappeal.org/spending-billions-on-policing-then-millions-on-police-misconduct/
Cost of police misconduct cases soars in big U.S. cities: Data show rising payouts for police misconduct settlements and court judgments (2015)
https://www.wsj.com/articles/cost-of-police-misconduct-cases-soars-in-big-u-s-cities-1437013834
Differences in citizen perceptions of interactions with police officers (2020)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032258X19826855
Public Perceptions of the Police (2020)
https://counciloncj.org/page/PublicPerceptionsofthePolice
Perceptions of Police Conduct When Race and Gender Are Considered (2019)
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-019-09346-1
Developing European indicators of trust in justice (2011)
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-15901-003
Public Opinions of the Police: The Influence of Friends, Family, and News Media (2004)
Racially Biased Policing: Determinants of Citizen Perceptions (2004)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3598267
The Public Image of the Police (2001)
https://www.academia.edu/5137667/The_Public_Image_of_the_Police?email_work_card=title
Community Relations & Policing
Community oriented policing services (COPS) program (2019)
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/IF10922.pdf
A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy (2019)
Philosophy into practice? Community policing units and domestic violence victim participation (2000)
Neighborhood by Neighborhood: Community Policing in a Rust Belt City (2019)
Importance of police-community relationships and resources for future research (2016)
https://www.justice.gov/file/1437336/download
President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing (2015)
Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: a systematic review (2014)
Principles of good policing: Avoiding violence between police and citizens (2003)
Citizen Input and Police Service: Moving beyond the “Feel Good” Community Survey (2002)
Crisis Intervention
The treatment of persons with mental illness in prisons and jails: A state survey (2014)
Outcomes of police contacts with persons with mental illness: The impact of CIT (2010)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19705277/
Crisis response services for people with mental illnesses or intellectual and developmental disabilities: A review of the literature on police-based and other first response models (2019)
Police interventions with persons affected by mental illnesses (2011)
http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/police-interventions-persons-affected-mental-illnesses
The crisis intervention team model of police response to mental health crises: A primer for mental health practitioners. Best Practices in Mental Health (2012) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3769782/
Serious mental illness (SMI) Prevalence in jails and prisons (2016)
https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/storage/documents/backgrounders/smi-in-jails-and-prisons.pdf
Improving police response to persons with mental illness: A multi-level conceptualization of CIT (2008)
https://www.amazon.com/Trust-Law-Encouraging-Cooperation-Foundation/dp/0871548895
Crisis Intervention Teams (CIT): Considerations for knowledge transfer (2006)
https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1547&context=mhlp_facpub
Media coverage of law enforcement use of force and disability: A media study (2013-2015) and overview (2016)
Deaths of people with mental illness during interactions with law enforcement (2018)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29853001/
Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates (2009)
http://www.theatlantic.com/nationa/archive/2014/12/police-gun-
Community treatment and police (2007)
http://jaapl.org/content/early/2019/09/24/JAAPL.003863-19#ref-8
Effectiveness of police crisis intervention training programs (2019)
http://jaapl.org/content/early/2019/09/24/JAAPL.003863-19#ref-8
Law enforcement responses to people with mental illness: A guide to research-informed policy and practice (2009)
The variability in law enforcement state standards: A 42-state survey on mental health and crisis de-escalation training (2017)
https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/JC-LE-Survey.pdf
Police crisis intervention teams: Understanding implementation variations and officer-level impacts (2019)
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-019-9314-4
Beyond criminalization: toward a criminologically informed framework for mental health policy and services research.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-006-0072-0
Police training and specialized approaches to respond to people with mental illnesses (2003)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0011128702239235
Police as frontline mental health workers: The decision to arrest or refer to mental health agencies (1997)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9436056/
Practice Profile Crisis Intervention Teams (CITs) (2018) https://www.crimesolutions.gov/PracticeDetails.aspx?ID=81
Police discretion and encounters with people experiencing mental illness: The significant factors (2010)
Why mental health training is so important for law enforcement (2017) https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/2017/10/mental-health-training-law-enforcement/
California law enforcement agencies and the mentally ill offender (1995)
A strategic approach to police interactions involving persons with mental illness (2010)
Horizons of context: Understanding the police decision to arrest people with mental illness (2007)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2811044/
BJS finds inmates have higher rates of serious psychological distress than the U. S. general population (2017)
De-escalation training: learning to back off (2016)
https://www.policemag.com/341981/de-escalation-training-learning-to-back-off
It’s citizens; not police who need de-escalation training (2016)
NYPD implements new 'use of force' policies to curb physical confrontations (2016)
Police 'de-escalation' training - how it could help Chicago (2016)
https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-police-training-las-vegas-chicago-met-20160324-story.html
The police-based crisis intervention team (CIT) model: II. Effects on level of force and resolution, referral, and arrest (2014)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24382643/
Crisis intervention teams may prevent arrests of people with mental illnesses (2010)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15614263.2010.497664
A comprehensive review of extant research on crisis intervention team (CIT) programs (2008)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18354123/
People with mental illness: Problem-oriented guides for police (2006)
https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/people-mental-illness
Why mental health training is so important for law enforcement (2017
https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/2017/10/mental-health-training-law-enforcement/
De-Escalation
The deafening demand for de-escalation training: a systematic review and call for evidence in police use of force reform (2020)
https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP_UC_De-escalation%20Systematic%20Review.pdf
Moving the needle: can training alter officer perceptions and use of de-escalation? (2020)
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2020-0140/full/html
It’s citizens; not police who need de-escalation training (2016)
http://bluelivesmatter.blue/citizens-not-police-need-de-escalation-training/
Barriers and facilitators to the effective de-escalation of conflict behaviours in forensic high-secure settings: a qualitative study (2020)
https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-020-00392-5
Long taught to use force, police warily learn to de-escalate (2015) https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/28/us/long-taught-to-use-force-police- warily- learn-to-de-escalate.html.
De-escalation training: learning to back off (2016)
https://www.policemag.com/341981/de-escalation-training-learning-to-back-off
Police training for de-escalating conflicts (2016)
https://www.v-academy.com/police-training-for-de-escalatingconflicts/#
How one of the deadliest police forces in America stopped shooting people (2015)
https://qz.com/565011/how-one-of-the-largest-police-forces-in-america-stopped-shooting-people/
Seattle police department manual, § 8.100 - de-escalation (2019) https://www.seattle.gov/police-manual/title-8---use-of-force/8100---de-escalation
Police 'de-escalation' training - how it could help Chicago (2016) http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-police-training-lasvegas-chicago-met-20160324-story.html
Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice (2018)
Chicago police adopt de-escalation in sweeping change to use of force police (2017)
Are de-escalation policies dangerous? (2017)
https://www.policemag.com/342333/are-de-escalation-policies-dangerous
M62 shooting: Charts show difference between police shootings in the US and the UK. Independent (2017)
The Race to Brand De-escalation Training for Law Enforcement (2020) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338390356_The_Race_to_Brand_De-escalation
Re-Engineering training on police use of force (2015)
https://www.policeforum.org/assets/reengineeringtraining1.pdf
NYPD implements new 'use of force' policies to curb physical confrontations (2016)
http://pixlI.com/2016/06/0I/nypd-implements-new-useof-force-policy-to-curb-physical-confrontations/
Use of deadly force by police disappears on Richmond streets (2014)
http://www.eastbaytimes.com/news/ci_26482775/use-deadly-force-by-police-disappears-richmond-streets
Exploring Variation in Police Perceptions of De-Escalation: Do Officer Characteristics Matter? (2019)
https://ouci.dntb.gov.ua/en/works/7AgoNw8l/
National Decision Model (2013)
https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/national-decision-model/the-national-decision-model/
BJS finds inmates have higher rates of serious psychological distress than the U. S. general population (2017)
https://bjs.ojp.gov/redirect-legacy/content/pub/press/imhprpji1112pr.cfm
The variability in law enforcement state standards: A 42-state survey on mental health and crisis de-escalation training (2017)
https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/JC-LE-Survey.pdf
An Integrated Approach to De-Escalation and Minimizing Use of Force (2012)
Enhancing emotion-regulation skills in police officers: Results of a pilot-controlled study (2010)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20569782/
Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ (1995)
https://www.amazon.com/Emotional-Intelligence-Matter-More-Than/dp/055338371X
Verbal judo: the gentle art of persuasion (1993)
https://www.amazon.com/Verbal-Judo-Gentle-Persuasion-Updated/dp/0062107704
Influence & Bias in the Decision to Stop or Arrest
Predicting officer performance in motor vehicle stops: An example of the repeat phenomenon (2007)
Police criminal charging decisions: An examination of post-arrest decision-making (2008)
How suspect race affects police use of force in an interaction over time (2017)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27762571/
Racial Profiling and Use of Force in Police Stops: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination (2016)
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/687518
Excessive or reasonable force by police? Research on law enforcement and racial conflict (2016)
Study finds some racial differences in perceptions of police behavior during contact with the public (2013)
https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/pbtss11rpa11pr.cfm
Militarization of Police
The “1033 Program,” Department of Defense support to law enforcement (2014)
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R43701.pdf
Police militarization (2017)
https://leb.fbi.gov/articles/featured-articles/police-militarization
Demystifying “militarization”: A partial analysis of the impact of the U.S. Department of Defense’s “1033” equipment transfer program on police officer safety outcomes (2015)
https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/760998
The militarization of police’s eyes, ears, and hands: The 1033 Department of Defense program and police safety outcomes (2016)
https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/1040783
The “1033 Program,” Department of Defense support to law enforcement (2014)
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R43701.pdf
Militarization and police violence: The case of the 1033 program (2017)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2053168017712885
Personality
Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type (1995)
https://www.amazon.com/Gifts-Differing-Understanding-Personality-Type/dp/089106074X
Multivariate prediction of coronary heart disease during 8.5-year follow-up in the Western Collaborative Group Study [Type A & B personality] (1976)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1266756/
Type A Behavior and Your Heart (1974)
https://www.amazon.com/Type-Behavior-Heart-Meyer-Friedman/dp/0394480112
Emotions of normal people [DISC] (1928)
https://www.amazon.com/Emotions-Normal-William-Moulton-Marston/dp/1298491738
Police Accountability and Force Deterrents
Revisiting “Who is guarding the guardians?” A report on police practices and civil rights in America (2000)
http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps13614/www.usccr.gov/pubs/guard/main.htm
A field experiment of the impact of body-worn cameras (BWCS) on police officer behavior and perceptions (2017)
The effect of police body-worn cameras on use of force and citizens’ complaints against the police: A randomized controlled trial (2014)
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10940-014-9236-3
Show me what happened: Analyzing use of force through analysis of body-worn camera footage (2018)
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/jrca/55/1
Toward a national estimate of police use of nonlethal force (2008)
https://www.ojp.gov/library/abstracts/toward-national-estimate-police-use-nonlethal-force
Body-worn cameras: What the evidence tells us (2018)
https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/body-worn-cameras-what-evidence-tells-us
National Decision Model. (2018)
Police performance measurement: an annotated bibliography (2015)
Expanding the measurement of police integrity (2016)
Beyond Common Sense: Surveillance Societies (2018)
https://www.academia.edu/37905372/Beyond_Common_Sense_Surveillance_Societies?email_work_card=title
Mandatory arrest: loosely coupled organisations, situational variables, and the arrest decision (2008)
Force Continuums: Moving Beyond Speculation and Toward Empiricism (2007)
Who are the complaint-prone officers? (2001)
https://www.academia.edu/19890692/Who_are_the_complaint_prone_officers?email_work_card=title
Police Behavior And The Situational Environment
The impact of situational factors, officer characteristics, and neighborhood context on police behavior: A multilevel analysis (2008)
Police officer decision-making in potentially violent confrontations (1992) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004723529290075K
Systematic social observation of police decision-making: The process, logistics, and challenges in a Canadian context (2012)
Moving beyond “Best Practice”: Experiences in Police Reform and a Call for Evidence to Reduce Officer-Involved Shootings (2020)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0002716219889328
Federal Civil Litigation as an Instrument of Police Reform: A Natural Experiment Exploring the Effects of the Floyd Ruling on Stop-and-Frisk Activities in New York City (2016)
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2832337
Procedural Justice and Police Legitimacy
Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and the Effective Rule of Law (2003)
Procedural justice training reduces police use of force and complaints against officers (2020)
https://www.pnas.org/content/117/18/9815
Demeanor, race, and police perceptions of procedural justice: Evidence from two randomized experiments (2017)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07418825.2017.1334808
Enhancing police legitimacy (2004)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4127668
Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? (2008)
https://kb.osu.edu/handle/1811/73064
Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts (2002)
https://www.amazon.com/Trust-Law-Encouraging-Cooperation-Foundation/dp/0871548895
Four ingredients: New recipes for procedural justice in Australian policing (2010) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238412321_Four_Ingredients_New_Recipes_for_Procedural_Justice_in_Australian_Policing
Training police for procedural justice (2015)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269723704_Training_police_for_procedural_justice
Compliance with the law and policing by consent: Notes on police and legal legitimacy (2012)
Procedural justice, police legitimacy, and public cooperation with the police among young Slovene adults (2012)
Shaping citizen perceptions of police legitimacy: A randomized field trial of procedural justice (2013)
Victim willingness to report crime to police: does procedural justice or outcome matter most? (2014)
https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2013.872744
Promoting trust in police: findings from a randomised experimental field trial of procedural justice policing (2014)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10439463.2013.862246
Measuring, Managing, and Enhancing Procedural Justice in Policing: Promise and Pitfalls (2016)
Procedural justice and road policing: Is it important? (2014)
https://www.academia.edu/29287561/Procedural_Justice_and_Road_Policing_Is_it_important
Policing, procedural fairness and public behaviour: a review and critique (2009)
Police Officer Decision-making in Dispute Encounters: Digging Deeper into the
Black Box’ (2014)
Policing Changes: Towards a contemporary understanding of police decision-making, discretion and legitimization (2009)
Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation. (2006)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16318600/
The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing (2003)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1555077
Four ingredients: New recipes for procedural justice in Australian policing (2012)
Cooperating with the police: Social control and the reproduction of police legitimacy (2010)
Procedural justice and road policing: Is it important? (2014)
https://www.academia.edu/29287561/Procedural_Justice_and_Road_Policing_Is_it_important
Building police legitimacy through measuring and managing performance (2017)
What Influences Perceptions of Procedural Justice Among People with Mental Illness
Regarding their Interactions with the Police? (2014)
Minority Perception of Police Legitimacy in Finland: The Patterns and Predictors (2018)
Legitimacy and Procedural Justice: A New Element of Police Leadership (2014)
Sanctions and Cases Against Law Enforcement
Studying Civil Suits Against the Police: A Serendipitous Finding of Sample Selection Bias (2002)
Chicago spent more than $113 million on police misconduct lawsuits in 2018 (2019)
City payouts in NYPD misconduct cases up by nearly $30M (2020)
https://nypost.com/2020/01/31/city-payouts-in-nypd-misconduct-cases-up-by-nearly-30m/
Use of Force
Examining the Impact of Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT) De-escalation Training for the Louisville Metro Police Department: Initial Findings (2020)
SWAT and non-SWAT police officers and the use of force (2003)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235203000515
Unnecessary force by police: Insights from evolutionary psychology (2018)
https://academic.oup.com/policing/issue/14/1
Department of Justice Completes Review of Vegas Metropolitan Police Department’s Use of Force Policies and Practices (2012)
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/department-justice-completes-review-las-vegas-
metropolitan-police-department-s-use-force
Electronic Control Weapon Guidelines (2011)
Final technical report draft: Assessing police use of force policy and outcomes (2011)
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/237794.pdf
Neighborhood context and police use of force (2003)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0022427803253800
Refining the role of less-lethal technologies: Critical thinking, communications, and tactics are essential in defusing critical incidents (2020)
https://www.policeforum.org/assets/LessLethal.pdf
Police use of force and suspect resistance: The micro process of the police-suspect encounter (2003)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1098611102250584
Who are the complaint-prone officers? (2001)
https://www.academia.edu/19890692/Who_are_the_complaint_prone_officers?email_work_card=thumbnail
Police use of force: An examination of modern policing practices (2018) https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2018/11-15-Police-Force.pdf
Guiding principles on use of force (2016)
https://www.policeforum.org/assets/guidingprinciples1.pdf
Use-of-force policies and training: A reasoned approach (2002)
Content and adequacy of specialized police training to handle youth-related incidents: Perceptions of trainers, supervisors, and frontline officers (2009)
Use of force by police: Overview of national and local data (1999)
https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/use-force-police-overview-national-and-local-data
Characteristics associated with the prevalence and severity of force used by the police (2002)
Conducted Energy Devices: Policies on Use Evolve to Reflect Research and Field Deployment Experience (2019)
National consensus policy and discussion paper on use of force (2017)
Understanding police use of force: A review of the evidence (2010)
Police use of force policy analysis (2016) https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56996151cbced68b170389f4/t/57e1b5cc2994ca4ac1d97700/1474409936835/Police+Use+of+Force+Report.pdf
Police use of force (2019)
https://www.nij.gov/topics/law-enforcement/officer-safety/use-of-force/pages/welcome.aspx
Analysis of 2018 Use of Deadly Force by the Phoenix Police Department (2018)
https://www.policefoundation.org/?s=use+of+force
Overview of police use of force (2020)
https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/overview-police-use-force
The force factor: Measuring police use of force relative to suspect resistance. (1997)
Understanding police use of force: Officers, suspects, and reciprocity. (2004)
https://www.amazon.com/Understanding-Police-Use-Force-Reciprocity/dp/0521546753
Interactive police-citizen encounters that result in force (2004)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1098611103260507
The impact of conducted energy devices and other types of force and resistance on police and suspect injuries (2007)
Police use of force: varying perspectives (2011)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0735648X.2011.613157
Campus Law Enforcement Use-of-Force and Conducted Energy Devices: A National-Level Exploratory Study of Perceptions and Practices (2008)
Correlates of foot pursuit injuries in the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (2012)
Non-Lethal Use of Force Policy: Perceptions from the Front-Line (2008)
A multivariate analysis of individual, situational, and environmental factors associated with police assault injuries (1995)
A Use-of-Force Preventative Training Model for Law Enforcement and Security Practitioners (2015)
Resident perceptions of police mistreatment and use of force in a troubled Trinidadian neighborhood (2011)
Multi-Method Evaluation of Police Use of Force Outcomes: Cities, Counties, and National, 1998-2007 [United States] (2000)
https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/231176.pdf
Listen To Me!: Police Officers’ Views of Appropriate Use of Force (2011)
Real Men Use Nonlethals: Appeals to Masculinity in Marketing Police Weaponry (2016)
‘Don’t tase me, bro’: Taser adoption and its consequences in Canada (2010)
Dirty Harry and the station queens: a Mertonian analysis of police deviance (2011)
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-31739-001
Use of Force Continuum
The use of force continuum conundrum (2003)
https://docplayer.net/78298054-The-force-continuum-conundrum.html
Examining Less Lethal Force Policy and the Force Continuum Results From a National Use-of-Force Study (2021)
Force Continuums: Moving Beyond Speculation and Toward Empiricism (2007)
http://www.academia.edu/10576553/Force_Continuums_Moving_beyond_Speculation_and_Toward_Empiricism
Use of force continuum (2009)
https://nij.gov/topics/lawenforcement/officer-safety/use-of-force/Pages/continuum.aspx
Force continuums: Three questions (3))
Use of Force - Statutory and Regulatory
An Analysis of State Statutes Regarding the Role of Law Enforcement (2020)
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0887403418806562
NAPO opposes bill forcing dangerous de-escalation practices on state and local law enforcement (2017)