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You have entered the NDTC library. Browse the articles and use the hyperlinks to review the research related to de-escalation topics.

De-escalation Articles

LIBRARY

  

  

COST OF POLICE MISCONDUCT

Spending billions on policing, then millions on police misconduct (2019)

https://theappeal.org/spending-billions-on-policing-then-millions-on-police-misconduct/

Cost of police misconduct cases soars in big U.S. cities: Data show rising payouts for police misconduct settlements and court judgments (2015)

https://www.wsj.com/articles/cost-of-police-misconduct-cases-soars-in-big-u-s-cities-1437013834

Police misconduct settlements can cost millions, but departments rarely feel the impact (2023) https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/11/17/who-pays-police-misconduct-settlements/71516795007/


CITIZEN PERCEPTIONS OF POLICE

Differences in citizen perceptions of interactions with police officers (2020)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032258X19826855

 Public Perceptions of the Police (2020)

https://counciloncj.org/page/PublicPerceptionsofthePolice

 Perceptions of Police Conduct When Race and Gender Are Considered (2019)

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-019-09346-1

 Policing in America: Understanding public attitudes toward the police: Results from a national survey (2016)

https://www.cato.org/survey-reports/policing-america-understanding-public-attitudes-toward-police-results-national

 Developing European indicators of trust in justice (2011)

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-15901-003

 Public Opinions of the Police: The Influence of Friends, Family, and News Media (2004)

https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/public-opinions-police-influence-friends-family-and-news-media

 Racially Biased Policing: Determinants of Citizen Perceptions (2004)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3598267

 The Public Image of the Police (2001)

https://www.academia.edu/5137667/The_Public_Image_of_the_Police?email_work_card=title

 
 

COMMUNITY RELATIONS & POLICING

Community oriented policing services (COPS) program (2019)

https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/IF10922.pdf

 A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy (2019)

https://www.pnas.org/content/116/40/19894?ijkey=8ff0c45ffddef060c8f608f8f6b62ad699481548&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha

 Philosophy into practice? Community policing units and domestic violence victim participation (2000)

https://www.academia.edu/11144768/Philosophy_into_practice_Community_policing_units_and_domestic_violence_victim_participation?email_work_card=title

 Neighborhood by Neighborhood: Community Policing in a Rust Belt City (2019)

https://www.academia.edu/39791168/Neighborhood_by_Neighborhood_Community_Policing_in_a_Rust_Belt_City?email_work_card=title

 Importance of police-community relationships and resources for future research (2016)

https://www.justice.gov/file/1437336/download

 President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing (2015)

https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/blog/president-s-task-force-21st-century-policing-recommendations-print-action

 Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: a systematic review (2014)

https://www.academia.edu/18054878/Community_oriented_policing_to_reduce_crime_disorder_and_fear_and_increase_satisfaction_and_legitimacy_among_citizens_a_systematic_review?email_work_card=title

 Principles of good policing: Avoiding violence between police and citizens (2003)

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/principles-good-policing-avoiding-violence-between-police-and-1

 Citizen Input and Police Service: Moving beyond the “Feel Good” Community Survey (2002)

https://www.academia.edu/23969536/_2002_Citizen_Input_and_Police_Service_Moving_beyond_the_Feel_Good_Community_Survey_In_Merry_Morash_and_Kevin_Fords_Eds_The_Move_to_Community_Policing_Making_Change_Happen_pp_43_60_Thousand_Oaks_CA_Sage?email_work_card=title

 
 

CRISIS INTERVENTION

The treatment of persons with mental illness in prisons and jails: A state survey (2014)

https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/storage/documents/treatment-behind-bars/treatment-behind-bars.pdf

 Outcomes of police contacts with persons with mental illness: The impact of CIT (2010)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19705277/

 Crisis response services for people with mental illnesses or intellectual and developmental disabilities: A review of the literature on police-based and other first response models (2019)

https://www.vera.org/downloads/publications/crisis-response-services-for- people-with-mental-illnesses-or-intellectual-and-developmental-disabilities.pdf

Police interventions with persons affected by mental illnesses (2011)

http://publichealthlawresearch.org/product/police-interventions-persons-affected-mental-illnesses

 The crisis intervention team model of police response to mental health crises: A primer for mental health practitioners. Best Practices in Mental Health (2012) 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3769782/

 Serious mental illness (SMI) Prevalence in jails and prisons (2016)

https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/storage/documents/backgrounders/smi-in-jails-and-prisons.pdf

 Improving police response to persons with mental illness: A multi-level conceptualization of CIT (2008)

https://www.amazon.com/Trust-Law-Encouraging-Cooperation-Foundation/dp/0871548895

 Crisis Intervention Teams (CIT): Considerations for knowledge transfer (2006)

https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1547&context=mhlp_facpub

 Media coverage of law enforcement use of force and disability: A media study (2013-2015) and overview (2016)

https://rudermanfoundation.org/en/white_papers/media-coverage-of-law-enforcement-use-of-force-and-disability/

Deaths of people with mental illness during interactions with law enforcement (2018)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29853001/

Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates (2009)

http://www.theatlantic.com/nationa/archive/2014/12/police-gun-

Community treatment and police (2007)

http://jaapl.org/content/early/2019/09/24/JAAPL.003863-19#ref-8

 Effectiveness of police crisis intervention training programs (2019)

http://jaapl.org/content/early/2019/09/24/JAAPL.003863-19#ref-8

 Law enforcement responses to people with mental illness: A guide to research-informed policy and practice (2009)

https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/law-enforcement-responses-to-people-with-mental-illnesses-a-guide-to-research-informed-policy-and-practice/

 The variability in law enforcement state standards: A 42-state survey on mental health and crisis de-escalation training (2017)

https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/JC-LE-Survey.pdf

 Police crisis intervention teams: Understanding implementation variations and officer-level impacts (2019)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-019-9314-4

 Beyond criminalization: toward a criminologically informed framework for mental health policy and services research. (2006)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-006-0072-0

 Police training and specialized approaches to respond to people with mental illnesses (2003)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0011128702239235

Police as frontline mental health workers: The decision to arrest or refer to mental health agencies (1997)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9436056/

 Practice Profile Crisis Intervention Teams (CITs) (2018) https://www.crimesolutions.gov/PracticeDetails.aspx?ID=81

 Police discretion and encounters with people experiencing mental illness: The significant factors (2010)

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/police-discretion-and-encounters-people-experiencing-mental-illness

 Why mental health training is so important for law enforcement (2017)https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/2017/10/mental-health-training-law-enforcement/

California law enforcement agencies and the mentally ill offender (1995)

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/california-law-enforcement-agencies-and-mentally-ill-offender

 A strategic approach to police interactions involving persons with mental illness (2010)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233022576_A_Strategic_Approach_to_Police_Interactions_Involving_Persons_with_Mental_Illness

 Horizons of context: Understanding the police decision to arrest people with mental illness (2007)

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2811044/

 BJS finds inmates have higher rates of serious psychological distress than the U. S. general population (2017)

https://thecrimereport.org/2017/06/22/inmates-experience-serious-stress-at-higher-rates-than-general-population-says-bjs/

 De-escalation training: learning to back off (2016)

https://www.policemag.com/341981/de-escalation-training-learning-to-back-off

It’s citizens; not police who need de-escalation training (2016)

https://www.officer.com/command-hq/article/12232973/editorial-its-citizens-not-police-who-need-deescalation-training

NYPD implements new 'use of force' policies to curb physical confrontations (2016)

https://pix11.com/news/local-news/nypd-implements-new-use-of-force-policy-to-curb-physical-confrontations/

​Police 'de-escalation' training - how it could help Chicago (2016)

https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-police-training-las-vegas-chicago-met-20160324-story.html

 The police-based crisis intervention team (CIT) model: II. Effects on level of force and resolution, referral, and arrest (2014)

​https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24382643/

 Crisis intervention teams may prevent arrests of people with mental illnesses (2010)

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15614263.2010.497664

 A comprehensive review of extant research on crisis intervention team (CIT) programs (2008)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18354123/

​People with mental illness: Problem-oriented guides for police (2006)

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/people-mental-illness

Why mental health training is so important for law enforcement (2017

https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/2017/10/mental-health-training-law-enforcement/


  

 
DE-ESCALATION TRAINING_FOR_LAW_ENFORCEMENT 

The deafening demand for de-escalation training: a systematic review and call for evidence in police use of force reform (2020)

https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IACP_UC_De-escalation%20Systematic%20Review.pdf

 Moving the needle: can training alter officer perceptions and use of de-escalation? (2020)

https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2020-0140/full/html

 It’s citizens; not police who need de-escalation training (2016)

http://bluelivesmatter.blue/citizens-not-police-need-de-escalation-training/

 Barriers and facilitators to the effective de-escalation of conflict behaviours in forensic high-secure settings: a qualitative study (2020)

https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-020-00392-5

 Long taught to use force, police warily learn to de-escalate (2015)https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/28/us/long-taught-to-use-force-police- warily- learn-to-de-escalate.html.

 De-escalation training: learning to back off (2016) 

https://www.policemag.com/341981/de-escalation-training-learning-to-back-off

 Police training for de-escalating conflicts (2016)

https://www.v-academy.com/police-training-for-de-escalatingconflicts/#

How one of the deadliest police forces in America stopped shooting people (2015)

https://qz.com/565011/how-one-of-the-largest-police-forces-in-america-stopped-shooting-people/

 Seattle police department manual, § 8.100 - de-escalation (2019)https://www.seattle.gov/police-manual/title-8---use-of-force/8100---de-escalation

 Police 'de-escalation' training - how it could help Chicago (2016)http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-police-training-lasvegas-chicago-met-20160324-story.html

 Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice (2018)

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Reducing-Fatal-Police-Shootings-as-System-Crashes%3A-Sherman/49553fcf320645746e9da8e11f0a9e6ef802e7e6

 Chicago police adopt de-escalation in sweeping change to use of force police (2017)

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/true-crime/wp/2017/05/17/chicago-police-adopt-de-escalation-in-sweeping-change-to-use-of-force-policy/

Are de-escalation policies dangerous? (2017)

https://www.policemag.com/342333/are-de-escalation-policies-dangerous

M62 shooting: Charts show difference between police shootings in the US and the UK. Independent (2017)

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/m62-huddersfield-us-police-shooting-chicago-uk-charts-compare-difference-killings-officers-a7507051.html

The Race to Brand De-escalation Training for Law Enforcement (2020) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338390356_The_Race_to_Brand_De-escalation

 Re-Engineering training on police use of force (2015)

https://www.policeforum.org/assets/reengineeringtraining1.pdf

 NYPD implements new 'use of force' policies to curb physical confrontations (2016)

http://pixlI.com/2016/06/0I/nypd-implements-new-useof-force-policy-to-curb-physical-confrontations/

 Use of deadly force by police disappears on Richmond streets (2014)

http://www.eastbaytimes.com/news/ci_26482775/use-deadly-force-by-police-disappears-richmond-streets

 Exploring Variation in Police Perceptions of De-Escalation: Do Officer Characteristics Matter? (2019)

https://ouci.dntb.gov.ua/en/works/7AgoNw8l/

National Decision Model (2013)

https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/national-decision-model/the-national-decision-model/
An Integrated Approach to De-Escalation and Minimizing Use of Force (2012)

https://www.policeforum.org/assets/docs/Critical_Issues_Series/an%20integrated%20approach%20to%20de-escalation%20and%20minimizing%20use%20of%20force%202012.pdf

 Enhancing emotion-regulation skills in police officers: Results of a pilot-controlled study (2010)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20569782/

 Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ (1995)

https://www.amazon.com/Emotional-Intelligence-Matter-More-Than/dp/055338371X

Verbal judo: the gentle art of persuasion (1993)

https://www.amazon.com/Verbal-Judo-Gentle-Persuasion-Updated/dp/0062107704


INFLUENCE & BIAS IN THE DECISION TO STOP OR ARREST

 Predicting officer performance in motor vehicle stops: An example of the repeat phenomenon (2007)

https://www.academia.edu/30107519/Predicting_officer_performance_in_motor_vehicle_stops_An_example_of_the_repeat_phenomenon?email_work_card=abstract-read-more

Training police to de-escalate mental health crisis situations (2023)

https://academic.oup.com/policing/article/doi/10.1093/police/paad069/7334458

 Police criminal charging decisions: An examination of post-arrest decision-making (2008)

https://www.academia.edu/24217406/Police_criminal_charging_decisions_An_examination_of_post_arrest_decision_making?email_work_card=view-paper 

How suspect race affects police use of force in an interaction over time (2017)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27762571/

 Racial Profiling and Use of Force in Police Stops: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination (2016)

https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/687518

 Excessive or reasonable force by police? Research on law enforcement and racial conflict (2016)

https://journalistsresource.org/criminal-justice/police-reasonable-force-brutality-race-research-review-statistics/

 Study finds some racial differences in perceptions of police behavior during contact with the public (2013)

https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/pbtss11rpa11pr.cfm


DE-ESCALATION TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS

Assessing the impact of de-escalation training on police behavior: Reducing police use of force in the Louisville, KY metro police department (2022). 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1745-9133.12574

Testing the Impact of De-escalation Training on Officer Behavior: The Tempe (AZ) Smart Policing Initiative Final Report (2021).

https://www.smart-policing.com/sites/default/files/inline-files/Tempe%20SPI%20Final%20Report%2012-21.pdf 

What works in de-escalation training (2023)

https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/what-works-de-escalation-training

De-Escalation in everyday police operations (2025)

https://www.policechiefmagazine.org/de-escalation-everyday-police-ops/

Beyond force and injuries: Examining alternative (and important) outcomes for police De-escalation training (2023)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047235223001009

Police de-escalation tactics can lead to meaningful improvements in officer and civilian safety (2023)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047235223001009

De-Escalation Training: Safer Communities and Safer Law Enforcement Officers  (2022)

https://www.ojp.gov/files/archives/blogs/2022/de-escalation-training-safer-communities-and-safer-law-enforcement-officers

View of Police De-Escalation Training & Education  (2021)

https://www.journalcswb.ca/index.php/cswb/article/view/183/480

The 8 most effective de-escalation techniques in corrections (2024)

https://www.corrections1.com/corrections-training/articles/the-8-most-effective-de-escalation-techniques-in-corrections-jN0RMEriIsox1LuE/

De-Escalation: The Cornerstone of Law Enforcement (2022)

https://porac.org/article/de-escalation-the-cornerstone-of-law-enforcement/


OFFICER SELF CONTROL

Callous-Unemotional Traits and Motivational Aggression: The Mediating Role of Self-Regulation (2025)

Callous-Unemotional Traits and Motivational Aggression: The Mediating Role of Self-Regulation: Journal of Forensic Psychology Research and Practice: Vol 0, No 0 - Get Access

Protecting Officers from Themselves: Tactics for Self-Control  2021

https://www.lexipol.com/resources/blog/protecting-officers-from-themselves-tactics-for-self-control/

Emotional Intelligence in Policing (2021)

Emotional Intelligence in Policing - Police Chief Magazine

Stress & Self-regulation in Law Enforcement (2024)

https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1596&context=csh_etd

Does Low Self-Control Contribute to Police Officers' Procedurally Unjust Treatment of Citizens? A Unique Test of Gottfredson and Hirschi's Generality Hypothesis (2020) 

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/does-low-self-control-contribute-police-officers-procedurally

Self-Control in Use of Force (2023)

https://www.lexipol.com/resources/todays-tips/self-control-in-use-of-force/

Harnessing emotional detachment: A key skill for police officers (2023)

https://www.police1.com/police-training/articles/harnessing-emotional-detachment-a-key-skill-for-police-officers-2rsltTkAbw9MCGys/

Emotional Intelligence: The hidden skill every police officer needs (2024) 

Emotional intelligence: The hidden skill every police officer needs

Focusing on Civility in Law Enforcement (2023)

https://www.masc.sc/risk-letter/fall-2022/focusing-civility-law-enforcement

What does it mean to win an encounter? 2021 How emotional intelligence can help police de-escalate

It's Time to Follow the Money on Police Misconduct (2023)

It’s Time to Follow the Money on Police Misconduct — The Policing Project

National Police Funding Database: Settlements (2022)

https://policefundingdatabase.org/explore-the-database/settlements/

5 Years of Chicago Police Misconduct Cost Taxpayers Almost $400 Million (2024) https://reason.com/2024/08/12/5-years-of-chicago-police-misconduct-cost-taxpayers-almost-400-million/

Police Misconduct Costs Cities Millions Every Year. But That’s Where The Accountability Ends. (2021)

https://www.themarshallproject.org/2021/02/22/police-misconduct-costs-cities-millions-every-year-but-that-s-where-the-accountability-ends

Are Personality Traits Predictors of Police Misconduct? (2024)

Are Personality Traits Predictors of Police Misconduct? | Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology

     

LAW ENFORCEMENT BIAS

Potential Biases in Police Decision-Making (2022) 

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/stopping-crime/202202/potential-biases-in-police-decision-making

Disrupting the Effects of Implicit Bias: The Case of Discretion & Policing (2024) https://direct.mit.edu/daed/article/153/1/151/119935/Disrupting-the-Effects-of-Implicit-Bias-The-Case

How Texas understands and mitigates cognitive biases in policing (2024) 

https://www.police1.com/chiefs-sheriffs/how-texas-understands-and-mitigates-cognitive-biases-in-policing

The problem of entanglement: Biases and fallacies in police conflict management (2021) https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14613557211064054

Bias-Free Policing (2021)

https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/2021-01/Bias-Free%20Policing%202021-01.pdf

Understanding Bias: A Resource Guide (2021) 

https://www.justice.gov/d9/fieldable-panel-panes/basic-panes/attachments/2021/09/29/understanding_bias_content.pdf

Consistently inconsistent: Examining variability in police decision-making in mental health calls using a novel noise audit approach 2(024)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047235224000503

A Cognitive View of Policing (2023)

https://bfi.uchicago.edu/insight/research-summary/a-cognitive-view-of-policing/

     

     

PERSONALITY

Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type (1995)

https://www.amazon.com/Gifts-Differing-Understanding-Personality-Type/dp/089106074X

Multivariate prediction of coronary heart disease during 8.5-year follow-up in the Western Collaborative Group Study [Type A & B personality] (1976)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1266756/

Type A Behavior and Your Heart (1974)

https://www.amazon.com/Type-Behavior-Heart-Meyer-Friedman/dp/0394480112

Emotions of normal people [DISC] (1928) 

https://www.amazon.com/Emotions-Normal-William-Moulton-Marston/dp/1298491738

Emotional Intelligence for Police Officers: A Critical Skill for Modern Law Enforcement (2018)

Emotional Intelligence for Police Officers: A Critical Skill for Modern Law Enforcement » Beyond the Badge with Shaun Nestor

Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type (1995)

https://www.amazon.com/Gifts-Differing-Understanding-Personality-Type/dp/089106074X

 Multivariate prediction of coronary heart disease during 8.5-year follow-up in the Western Collaborative Group Study [Type A & B personality] (1976)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1266756/

Type A Behavior and Your Heart (1974)

https://www.amazon.com/Type-Behavior-Heart-Meyer-Friedman/dp/0394480112

 Emotions of normal people [DISC] (1928) 

https://www.amazon.com/Emotions-Normal-William-Moulton-Marston/dp/1298491738

Law Enforcement Officers’ Ability to Recognize Emotions: The Role of Personality Traits and Basic Needs Satisfaction (2022)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36285920/

Personality Trait: Affective System, Emotions, and Stress (2012)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/personality-trait

Examining Law Enforcement Officers' Personality Trait Differences Based Upon Their Career-related Stress and Lengths of Service (2018)

https://proxy.lib.wayne.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/criminaljusticeperiodicals/dissertations-theses/examining-law-enforcement-officers-personality/docview/2135757767/sem-2?accountid=14925

Relationship Between Personality Traits and Violence Involvement -a Study of High School Students in Northern Iraq (2022)

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9560051/

Are Personality Traits Predictors of Police Misconduct? (2024)

Are Personality Traits Predictors of Police Misconduct? | Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology

The Big Five Personality Factors and Personal Values (2002)https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0146167202289008

Personality and Crime (2024)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353939610_The_Link_between_Individual_Personality_Traits_and_Criminality_A_Systematic_Review


 POLICE ACCOUNTABILITY AND FORCE DETERRENTS 

Revisiting “Who is guarding the guardians?” A report on police practices and civil rights in America (2000)

http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps13614/www.usccr.gov/pubs/guard/main.htm

A field experiment of the impact of body-worn cameras (BWCS) on police officer behavior and perceptions (2017)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320764447_A_field_experiment_of_the_impact_of_body-worn_cameras_BWCs_on_police_officer_behavior_and_perceptions

The effect of police body-worn cameras on use of force and citizens’ complaints against the police: A randomized controlled trial (2014)

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10940-014-9236-3

Show me what happened: Analyzing use of force through analysis of body-worn camera footage (2018)

https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/jrca/55/1

Toward a national estimate of police use of nonlethal force (2008)

https://www.ojp.gov/library/abstracts/toward-national-estimate-police-use-nonlethal-force

Body-worn cameras: What the evidence tells us (2018)

https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/body-worn-cameras-what-evidence-tells-us

National Decision Model. (2018)

https://www.app.college.policeuk/app-content/national-decision-model/the-national-decision-model/#the-model

Police performance measurement: an annotated bibliography (2015)

https://www.academia.edu/29412745/Police_performance_measurement_an_annotated_bibliography?email_work_card=title

Expanding the measurement of police integrity (2016)

https://www.academia.edu/27737667/Expanding_the_measurement_of_police_integrity?email_work_card=view-paper

Beyond Common Sense: Surveillance Societies (2018) 

https://www.academia.edu/37905372/Beyond_Common_Sense_Surveillance_Societies?email_work_card=title

Mandatory arrest: loosely coupled organisations, situational variables, and the arrest decision (2008)

https://www.academia.edu/24217405/Mandatory_arrest_loosely_coupled_organisations_situational_variables_and_the_arrest_decision?email_work_card=title

Force Continuums: Moving Beyond Speculation and Toward Empiricism (2007)

https://www.academia.edu/10576553/Force_Continuums_Moving_beyond_Speculation_and_Toward_Empiricism?email_work_card=reading-history

Who are the complaint-prone officers? (2001)

https://www.academia.edu/19890692/Who_are_the_complaint_prone_officers?email_work_card=title

 
 

POLICE BEHAVIOR AND THE SITUATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The impact of situational factors, officer characteristics, and neighborhood context on police behavior: A multilevel analysis (2008)

https://www.academia.edu/24136351/The_impact_of_situational_factors_officer_characteristics_and_neighborhood_context_on_police_behavior_A_multilevel_analysis

Police officer decision-making in potentially violent confrontations (1992)https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004723529290075K

Systematic social observation of police decision-making: The process, logistics, and challenges in a Canadian context (2012)

https://www.academia.edu/10656722/Systematic_social_observation_of_police_decision_making_The_process_logistics_and_challenges_in_a_Canadian_context?email_work_card=title

The impact of situational factors, officer characteristics, and neighborhood context on police behavior: A multilevel analysis (2008)

https://www.academia.edu/24136351/The_impact_of_situational_factors_officer_characteristics_and_neighborhood_context_on_police_behavior_A_multilevel_analysis

Police officer decision-making in potentially violent confrontations (1992)https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004723529290075K

 

POLICE REFORMS

Moving beyond “Best Practice”: Experiences in Police Reform and a Call for Evidence to Reduce Officer-Involved Shootings (2020)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0002716219889328

Federal Civil Litigation as an Instrument of Police Reform: A Natural Experiment Exploring the Effects of the Floyd Ruling on Stop-and-Frisk Activities in New York City (2016)

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2832337

 
 

USE OF FORCE - STATUTORY AND REGULATORY

An Analysis of State Statutes Regarding the Role of Law Enforcement (2020)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0887403418806562

NAPO opposes bill forcing dangerous de-escalation practices on state and local law enforcement (2017)

http://www.napo.org/washington-report/latest-news-updates/napo-opposes-bill-forcing-dangerous-de-escalation-practices-state-and-local-law-enforcement-house-moves-doj-appropriations-measu/

Law Enforcement Officials' Use of Force: Choice of Means and Legal Certainty   (2020)

https://cris.mruni.eu/cris/entities/publication/c80e3b05-50c4-460d-91a4-0d955c7bdc27

How   Police Culture Shapes Use of Force: A Response to Flores Et Al. (2021)

https://georgia-international-journal.scholasticahq.com/article/25609-how-police-culture-shapes-use-of-lethal-force-a-response-to-flores-et-al

The   force of fear: Police stereotype threat, self-legitimacy, and support for   excessive force (2019)

https://www.academia.edu/39574307/The_force_of_fear_Police_stereotype_threat_self_legitimacy_and_support_for_excessive_force?email_work_card=thumbnail

     

     

SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER

Only 1 in 5 U.S. adults with opioid use disorder received medications to treat it in 2021. (2023)

https://nida.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/2023/08/only-

2022 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). (2022)

https://www.samhsa.gov/data/data-we-collect/nsduh-national-survey-drug-use-and-health/national-releases/2022

Fentanyl Drug Facts (2021)

https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugfacts/fentanyl 

Fentanyl Safety Recommendations for First Responders. (2018)

https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/Publications/Final%20STANDARD%20size%20of%20F

Fentanyll%20Safety%20Recommendations%20for%20First%20Respond....pdf

The Language of Substance Use and Recovery: Novel Use of the Go/No-Go Association Task to Measure Implicit Bias. Health Commun. (2019)

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6314912/

The association between type of trauma, level of exposure and addiction, Addictive Behaviors (2021)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33735776/

The role of interpersonal trauma and substance

use in mental health: A large population-based study (2024)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38219350/

     

      

MILITARIZATION OF POLICE

The “1033 Program,” Department of Defense support to law enforcement (2014)

https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R43701.pdf

Police militarization (2017)

https://leb.fbi.gov/articles/featured-articles/police-militarization

 Demystifying “militarization”: A partial analysis of the impact of the U.S. Department of Defense’s “1033” equipment transfer program on police officer safety outcomes (2015)

https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/760998

 The militarization of police’s eyes, ears, and hands: The 1033 Department of Defense program and police safety outcomes (2016)

https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/1040783

 The “1033 Program,” Department of Defense support to law enforcement (2014)

https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R43701.pdf

Militarization and police violence: The case of the 1033 program (2017)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2053168017712885

 
 

PROCEDURAL JUSTICE AND POLICE LEGITIMACY

Police Legitimacy: An entry in The Encyclopedia of Research Methods in Criminology and Criminal Justice (2021)

https://www.academia.edu/34280174/Police_Legitimacy_An_entry_in_The_Encyclopedia_of_Research_Methods_in_Criminology_and_Criminal_Justice_?email_work_card=title

 Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and the Effective Rule of Law (2003)

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Procedural-Justice%2C-Legitimacy%2C-and-the-Effective-Tyler/900535b8beeabda52e9373107ccb95be3e0769b8

 Procedural justice training reduces police use of force and complaints against officers (2020)

https://www.pnas.org/content/117/18/9815

 Demeanor, race, and police perceptions of procedural justice: Evidence from two randomized experiments (2017)

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07418825.2017.1334808

 Enhancing police legitimacy (2004)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4127668

 Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? (2008)

https://kb.osu.edu/handle/1811/73064

 Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts (2002)

https://www.amazon.com/Trust-Law-Encouraging-Cooperation-Foundation/dp/0871548895

 Four ingredients: New recipes for procedural justice in Australian policing (2010)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238412321_Four_Ingredients_New_Recipes_for_Procedural_Justice_in_Australian_Policing

 Training police for procedural justice (2015)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269723704_Training_police_for_procedural_justice

 Compliance with the law and policing by consent: Notes on police and legal legitimacy (2012)

https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/30157/1/Jackson_etal_Compliance_with_the_law_and_policing_by_consent_2012.pdf

 Procedural justice, police legitimacy, and public cooperation with the police among young Slovene adults (2012)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237089267_Procedural_Justice_Police_Legitimacy_and_Public_Cooperation_with_the_Police_among_Young_Slovene_Adults

Shaping citizen perceptions of police legitimacy: A randomized field trial of procedural justice (2013)

http://ippsr.msu.edu/research/shaping-citizens-perceptions-police-legitimacy-randomized-field-trial-procedural-justice

 Victim willingness to report crime to police: does procedural justice or outcome matter most? (2014)

https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2013.872744

 Promoting trust in police: findings from a randomised experimental field trial of procedural justice policing (2014) 

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10439463.2013.862246

 Measuring, Managing, and Enhancing Procedural Justice in Policing: Promise and Pitfalls (2016)

https://www.academia.edu/31038664/Measuring_Managing_and_Enhancing_Procedural_Justice_in_Policing_Promise_and_Pitfalls?email_work_card=thumbnail

 Procedural justice and road policing: Is it important? (2014)

https://www.academia.edu/29287561/Procedural_Justice_and_Road_Policing_Is_it_important

 Policing, procedural fairness and public behavior: a review and critique (2009)

https://www.academia.edu/787163/Policing_procedural_fairness_and_public_behaviour_a_review_and_critique?email_work_card=title

 Police Officer Decision-making in Dispute Encounters: Digging Deeper into the Black Box’ (2014)

https://www.academia.edu/26441919/What_Influences_Perceptions_of_Procedural_Justice_Among_People_with_Mental_Illness_Regarding_their_Interactions_with_the_Police?email_work_card=title

 Policing Changes: Towards a contemporary understanding of police decision-making, discretion and legitimization (2009)

https://www.academia.edu/452686/Policing_Changes_Towards_a_contemporary_understanding_of_police_decision_making_discretion_and_legitimization?email_work_card=title

 Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation. (2006)

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16318600/

 The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing (2003)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/1555077

 Four ingredients: New recipes for procedural justice in Australian policing (2012)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238412321_Four_Ingredients_New_Recipes_for_Procedural_Justice_in_Australian_Policing

 Cooperating with the police: Social control and the reproduction of police legitimacy (2010)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228223955_Cooperating_with_the_Police_Social_Control_and_the_Reproduction_of_Police_Legitimacy

 Procedural justice and road policing: Is it important? (2014)

https://www.academia.edu/29287561/Procedural_Justice_and_Road_Policing_Is_it_important

 Building police legitimacy through measuring and managing performance (2017)

https://www.policefoundation.org/building-police-legitimacy-through-measuring-and-managing-performance/

What Influences Perceptions of Procedural Justice Among People with Mental Illness 

Regarding their Interactions with the Police? (2014)

https://www.academia.edu/26441919/What_Influences_Perceptions_of_Procedural_Justice_Among_People_with_Mental_Illness_Regarding_their_Interactions_with_the_Police?email_work_card=title

Minority Perception of Police Legitimacy in Finland: The Patterns and Predictors (2018)

https://www.academia.edu/37853935/Minority_Perception_of_Police_Legitimacy_in_Finland_The_Patterns_and_Predictors?email_work_card=title

 Legitimacy and Procedural Justice: A New Element of Police Leadership (2014) 

https://chicagopatf.org/2016/01/05/legitimacy-and-procedural-justice-a-new-element-of-police-leadership-a-report-by-the-police-executive-research-forum-perf/ 

Sanctions and Cases Against Law Enforcement

Studying Civil Suits Against the Police: A Serendipitous Finding of Sample Selection Bias (2002)

https://www.academia.edu/22773958/Studying_Civil_Suits_Against_the_Police_A_Serendipitous_Finding_of_Sample_Selection_Bias?email_work_card=view-paper

 Chicago spent more than $113 million on police misconduct lawsuits in 2018 (2019)

https://www.chicagoreporter.com/chicago- spent-more-than-113-million-on-police-misconduct-lawsuits-in-2018/

 City payouts in NYPD misconduct cases up by nearly $30M (2020)

https://nypost.com/2020/01/31/city-payouts-in-nypd-misconduct-cases-up-by-nearly-30m/ Use of Force

 Examining the Impact of Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT) De-escalation Training for the Louisville Metro Police Department: Initial Findings (2020)

https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/Research%20Center/LMPD_ICAT%20Evaluation%20Initial%20Findings%20Report_FINAL%2009212020.pdf

SWAT and non-SWAT police officers and the use of force (2003)

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235203000515

 Unnecessary force by police: Insights from evolutionary psychology (2018)

https://academic.oup.com/policing/issue/14/1

 Department of Justice Completes Review of Vegas Metropolitan Police Department’s Use of Force Policies and Practices (2012)

https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/department-justice-completes-review-las-vegas- 

metropolitan-police-department-s-use-force

 Electronic Control Weapon Guidelines (2011)

https://www.policeforum.org/assets/docs/Free_Online_Documents/Use_of_Force/electronic%20control%20weapon%20guidelines%202011.pdf

 Final technical report draft: Assessing police use of force policy and outcomes (2011)

https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/237794.pdf

 Neighborhood context and police use of force (2003)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0022427803253800

Refining the role of less-lethal technologies: Critical thinking, communications, and tactics are essential in defusing critical incidents (2020)

https://www.policeforum.org/assets/LessLethal.pdf

 Police use of force and suspect resistance: The micro process of the police-suspect encounter (2003) 

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1098611102250584

Who are the complaint-prone officers? (2001)

https://www.academia.edu/19890692/Who_are_the_complaint_prone_officers?email_work_card=thumbnail

 Police use of force: An examination of modern policing practices (2018) 

https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2018/11-15-Police-Force.pdf

 Guiding principles on use of force (2016)

https://www.policeforum.org/assets/guidingprinciples1.pdf

 Use-of-force policies and training: A reasoned approach (2002)

https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Use-of-force+policies+and+training%3A+a+reasoned+approach.+(Legal...-a09391594

Content and adequacy of specialized police training to handle youth-related incidents: Perceptions of trainers, supervisors, and frontline officers (2009)

https://www.academia.edu/4866769/Content_and_adequacy_of_specialized_police_training_to_handle_youth_related_incidents_Perceptions_of_trainers_supervisors_and_frontline_officers?email_work_card=title

 Use of force by police: Overview of national and local data (1999) 

https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/use-force-police-overview-national-and-local-data

 Characteristics associated with the prevalence and severity of force used by the police (2002)

https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/characteristics-associated-prevalence-and-severity-force-used-police

 Conducted Energy Devices: Policies on Use Evolve to Reflect Research and Field Deployment Experience (2019)

https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/conducted-energy-devices-policies-use-evolve-reflect-research-and-field-deployment

 National consensus policy and discussion paper on use of force (2017)

https://www.theiacp.org/resources/document/national-consensus-discussion-paper-on-use-of-force-and-consensus-policy 

 Understanding police use of force: A review of the evidence (2010)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256255286_Understanding_police_use_of_force_A_review_of_the_evidence

 Police use of force policy analysis (2016)https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56996151cbced68b170389f4/t/57e1b5cc2994ca4ac1d97700/1474409936835/Police+Use+of+Force+Report.pdf

 Police use of force (2019) 

https://www.nij.gov/topics/law-enforcement/officer-safety/use-of-force/pages/welcome.aspx

 Analysis of 2018 Use of Deadly Force by the Phoenix Police Department (2018)

https://www.policefoundation.org/?s=use+of+force

 Overview of police use of force (2020) 

https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/overview-police-use-force

 The force factor: Measuring police use of force relative to suspect resistance. (1997)

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/force-factor-measuring-police-use-force-relative-suspect-resistance

 Understanding police use of force: Officers, suspects, and reciprocity. (2004)

https://www.amazon.com/Understanding-Police-Use-Force-Reciprocity/dp/0521546753

 Interactive police-citizen encounters that result in force (2004)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1098611103260507

 The impact of conducted energy devices and other types of force and resistance on police and suspect injuries (2007)

https://www.academia.edu/7770480/The_impact_of_conducted_energy_devices_and_other_types_of_force_and_resistance_on_police_and_suspect_injuries?email_work_card=thumbnail

 Police use of force: varying perspectives (2011)

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0735648X.2011.613157

 Campus Law Enforcement Use-of-Force and Conducted Energy Devices: A National-Level Exploratory Study of Perceptions and Practices (2008)

https://www.academia.edu/33491528/Campus_Law_Enforcement_Use_of_Force_and_Conducted_Energy_Devices_A_National_Level_Exploratory_Study_of_Perceptions_and_Practices

 Correlates of foot pursuit injuries in the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (2012)

https://www.academia.edu/7763068/Correlates_of_foot_pursuit_injuries_in_the_Los_Angeles_County_Sheriff_s_Department?email_work_card=thumbnail

 Non-Lethal Use of Force Policy: Perceptions from the Front-Line (2008)

https://www.academia.edu/10576548/Non_Lethal_Use_of_Force_Policy_Perceptions_from_the_Front_Line?email_work_card=title

 A multivariate analysis of individual, situational, and environmental factors associated with police assault injuries (1995)

https://www.academia.edu/7770657/A_multivariate_analysis_of_individual_situational_and_environmental_factors_associated_with_police_assault_injuries?email_work_card=title

A Use-of-Force Preventative Training Model for Law Enforcement and Security Practitioners (2015)

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-use-of-force-preventative-training-model-for-law-Schneider-Minnaar/b6d0055de061226a5a7a7710f174c24bc9030d79

 Resident perceptions of police mistreatment and use of force in a troubled Trinidadian neighborhood (2011)

https://www.academia.edu/23577772/Resident_perceptions_of_police_mistreatment_and_use_of_force_in_a_troubled_Trinidadian_neighborhood?email_work_card=title

Multi-Method Evaluation of Police Use of Force Outcomes: Cities, Counties, and National, 1998-2007 [United States] (2000)

https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/231176.pdf

 Listen To Me!: Police Officers’ Views of Appropriate Use of Force (2011)

https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/listen-me-police-officers-views-appropriate-use-force

 Real Men Use Nonlethals: Appeals to Masculinity in Marketing Police Weaponry (2016)

https://www.academia.edu/13175686/Real_Men_Use_Nonlethals_Appeals_to_Masculinity_in_Marketing_Police_Weaponry

 ‘Don’t tase me, bro’: Taser adoption and its consequences in Canada (2010)

https://www.academia.edu/354844/The_Journal_of_Social_Criminology_3_1_Autumn_Winter_2010?email_work_card=title

 Dirty Harry and the station queens: a Mertonian analysis of police deviance (2011)

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-31739-001 

Use of Force Continuum

 The use of force continuum conundrum (2003)

https://docplayer.net/78298054-The-force-continuum-conundrum.html

 Examining Less Lethal Force Policy and the Force Continuum Results From a National Use-of-Force Study (2021)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180139_Examining_Less_Lethal_Force_Policy_and_the_Force_Continuum_Results_From_a_National_Use-of-Force_Study

 Force Continuums: Moving Beyond Speculation and Toward Empiricism (2007)

http://www.academia.edu/10576553/Force_Continuums_Moving_beyond_Speculation_and_Toward_Empiricism

 Use of force continuum (2009)

https://nij.gov/topics/lawenforcement/officer-safety/use-of-force/Pages/continuum.aspx

 
 


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